The Rape of the Lock

Alexander Pope

Summary

Belinda arises to prepare for the day’s social activities after sleeping late. Her guardian sylph, Ariel, warned her in a dream that some disaster will befall her, and promises to protect her to the best of his abilities. Belinda takes little notice of this oracle, however. After an elaborate ritual of dressing and primping, she travels on the Thames River to Hampton Court Palace, an ancient royal residence outside of London, where a group of wealthy young socialites are gathering for a party. Among them is the Baron, who has already made up his mind to steal a lock of Belinda’s hair. He has risen early to perform and elaborate set of prayers and sacrifices to promote success in this enterprise. When the partygoers arrive at the palace, they enjoy a tense game of cards, which Pope describes in mock-heroic terms as a battle. This is followed by a round of coffee. Then the Baron takes up a pair of scissors and manages, on the third try, to cut off the coveted lock of Belinda’s hair. Belinda is furious. Umbriel, a mischievous gnome, journeys down to the Cave of Spleen to procure a sack of sighs and a flask of tears which he then bestows on the heroine to fan the flames of her ire. Clarissa, who had aided the Baron in his crime, now urges Belinda to give up her anger in favor of good humor and good sense, moral qualities which will outlast her vanities. But Clarissa’s moralizing falls on deaf ears, and Belinda initiates a scuffle between the ladies and the gentlemen, in which she attempts to recover the severed curl. The lock is lost in the confusion of this mock battle, however; the poet consoles the bereft Belinda with the suggestion that it has been taken up into the heavens and immortalized as a constellation.

I FEED a flame within, which so torments me
feed=to feel
ومعناها هنا ان المتحدث يهتم بهذا الشخص
torments is the opposite of feed =hurt
That it both pains my heart, and yet contents me:
بالرغم من أنه متعرض للألم إلا ان هذه الالام تجعل المتحدث يستمر

'Tis such a pleasing smart, and I so love it,
ومازال يحبها كما هي <تقريبا بالرغم من الالآم اللي يسببها هذا الحب
That I had rather die than once remove it.
*بالرغم من الذي خلفه الحب تستمر حياته بالمشاعر ذاتها
Yet he, for whom I grieve, shall never know it;
grieve تعبر عن الحزن الشديد لأن المحبوبه لا تعرف بعمق حب المتكلم لها لكن لازم المتكلم مايبينش مشاعره
My tongue does not betray, nor my eyes show it.
هنا قالت انه كيف هذا الشخص يعرف أن الطرف الثاني يحبه؟
فلا لسان المتحدث ولا عيونه بينت هذا الحب
Not a sigh, nor a tear, my pain discloses,
لا تنهيده ولادمعة تكشف عن الااللام
But they fall silently, like dew on roses.
ولكنها تسقط بصمت مثل الندي علي الورود
Thus, to prevent my Love from being cruel,
My heart 's the sacrifice, as 'tis the fuel;
And while I suffer this to give him quiet,
لأنه حب من طرف واحد فشكل معاناة
My faith rewards my love, though he deny it.
مؤمن بأن حبه قوي بالرغم أن الحبيب لن يقبله
^ في هذا الكواترين والاخير يتضح الحب العميق وسبب كونه في صمت

On his eyes will I gaze, and there delight me;
مجرد نظر المتحدث لعين الحبيب يسعده
While I conceal my love no frown can fright me.
frown=illigal
there is something wrong with their love
To be more happy I dare not aspire,
Nor can I fall more low, mounting no higher.
لا يستطيع الشاعر ان يجعل مشاعره قويه او ضعيفه بل يبقيها في مستوي واحد

The first in a series of poetry examinations using Vendler's _Poems, Poets, Poetry_, this video looks at Shelley's poem "Ozymandias". Comments and questions welcome

1984
عن الرواية:

صدرت رواية “1984″ في عام 1948, وهي رواية سياسية دسيوتوبية, ومصطلح “يوتوبيا” يعني “العالم المثالي”, أو بالأخص “الحضارة المثالية” وخصوصاً في الجانب السياسي والاجتماعي منها, ومصطلح “دسيوتوبيا” يشير للفكرة المعاكسة من ذلك؛ والتي تعني المجتمع القائم على القمع والاستبداد.

الرواية عبارة عن تصور وتحذير لمستقبل من الوارد جداً حدوثه, وتاريخ نشر الرواية هو في غاية الأهمية؛ فعنوان الرواية بالنسبة لتاريخ نشرها يلمّح بأن السيناريو المستقبلي المخيف المذكور فيها قد لا يكون بعيداً, بل إن العديد من المفكرين يظنون أنه قد تحقق جزء كبير منه, والعقبة التي تحول دون تحققه كلياً هي مجرد عقبة تكنولوجية؛ وبشيء من التطور العلمي والتكنولوجي قد يصبح عالمنا – إن لم يكن كذلك الآن – مثل عالم “1984″.

تبدأ الرواية بالطبع في عام 1984 حيث العالم منقسم لثلاث دول: الدولة الأولى هي “أوشيانيا” (تمت ترجمتها لـ “أوقيانيا”), وهي عبارة عن الأمريكيتين واستراليا والجزر البريطانية. والدولة الثانية هي “أوراسيا”, وأراضيها هي روسيا والباقي من أوروبا. والدولة الثالثة هي “إيستاسيا” وتتكون من الصين واليابان وكوريا وشمال الهند. أما بالنسبة للشرق الأوسط, وجنوب الهند, وأفريقيا, فهي عبارة عن ساحات حرب ومناطق متنازع عليها من قبل هذه الدول الثلاث.

أحداث الرواية تدور في دولة أوشيانيا حيث الأيدلوجية هناك هي الاشتراكية الإنجليزية أو ما يسميه الحزب الداخلي بـ (الإنجسوك), وحيث المجتمع هناك مقسم لثلاث طبقات: طبقة “الحزب الداخلي” ونسبتها اثنان بالمئة من السكان, وطبقة “الحزب الخارجي” ونسبتها ثلاثة عشرة بالمئة منهم, وأخيراً توجد طبقة “العامة”, وفوق هذه الطبقات كلها يوجد الحاكم المسيطر المستبد “الأخ الأكبر”؛ هذه الشخصية التي أصبحت من أكثر الشخصيات الروائية شهرة, بل إنها أصبحت رمزاً لأي عملية استبداد أو تجسس أو قمع. وبالمناسبة, سبب تسمية البرنامج التلفزيوني الشهير “الأخ الأكبر” بهذا الاسم هو عملية المراقبة الدائمة على المشاركين فيه.

في هذه الرواية يثبت جورج أورويل أنه ليس أديباً فذاً فقط, بل يثبت أنه مفكر سياسي حاذق, فهو لم يكتفي بتحليل الفكر الاستبدادي وتحليل طريقة عمله, بل تجاوز ذلك ليتنبأ لنا بنبؤة مستقبلية متكاملة مذهلة لما سوف يؤول إليه هذا الفكر إن استمر حاله على ما هو عليه. هذا النوع من الفكر يستخدم ما يحلو لي تسميته (الداروينية الاستبدادية)؛ فهو بمرور الوقت يتخلص من نقاط ضعفه التي تطيح به عادة, وأيضاً بمرور الوقت يعزّز أوجه قوته كي يكسب أعضاء جديدة يسيطر بها على العامة وعلى الثورات والانقلابات المحتملة؛ فأفكار الأخ الأكبر في هذه الرواية تختلف تماماً عن الأفكار الاستبدادية التقليدية, فهو يتعامل مع الشعارات والهتافات والتسميات بطريقة مختلفة, ويتعامل مع الثوار والمنشقين بطريقة مختلفة, ويتعامل مع طبقات المجتمع والحروب والثروات والتقنية بطريقة مختلفة, بل أنه يفهم فكرة “السلطة” وغايتها وتطبيقها بشكل مختلف, يتعامل الأخ الأكبر مع هذه الأفكار ويفهمها بطريقة جديدة متطورة تضمن له أن يكون نظامه السياسي غير قابل للهزيمة؛ ويبدو لي أننا بقليل من التعديلات نستطيع تحويل الرواية لكتاب من نوع (الطغيان للمبتدئين).

في أوشيانيا يستبد الحزب الداخلي بقيادة الأخ الأكبر استبداداً مذهلاً وجباراً على باقي الطبقات؛ فهو يزرع شاشات الرصد في كل مكان؛ وهذه الشاشات مهمتها مراقبة الشعب ونشر الأخبار الملفقة وإصدار الأوامر للأفراد, ويزرع الحزب الميكروفونات في كل مكان لرصد كل همسة من الشعب, بل ويتجاوز الحزب ذلك ويعمد لتحطيم العلاقات الأسرية لإفناء كل ولاء ليس موجه له, ويعمد أيضا لإذلال العملية الجنسية بجعلها مجرد وسيلة لخدمته وبتجريدها من أي رغبة أو وله أو عاطفة كؤاد لأي احتمال لنشوء ولاء لغير الأخ الأكبر. ثم يتفوق الحزب في استبداده على نفسه ليصل لمرحلة الاستبداد العقلي فيسيطر على اللغة, ويدمر, ويعيد تركيب كلماتها, بل ويصنع لغة جديدة, ويمنع الاتصال بالحضارات الأخرى, ويحرّف التاريخ, ويلفّق الماضي, ويقلب الحقائق, حتى تتوه العقول فلا تجد إلا الحزب كحقيقة ثابتة تستطيع أن تؤمن بها.

في المشهد الافتتاحي للرواية نرى المواطن “ونستون سميث”, والذي يعمل في وزارة الحقيقة (وزارة الإعلام) والتي, بشكل ساخر, مناطه بتزييف الحقائق, نرى هذا المواطن وهو يدخل غرفته وقد أصابه الإحباط من دكتاتورية الحزب, ومن أسلوب الحياة الذي يفرضه. يفتح حينها دفتر كان قد اشتراه بشكل غير شرعي ليبدأ في تدوين أفكاره؛ وهو مدرك أنه ابتداء من هذه اللحظة قد صار في عداد الموتى, فمجرد عملية التفكير يعتبرها الحزب جريمة تستحق الموت ويسميها “جريمة الفكر”, يكتب ونستون في دفتره أنه يكره الأخ الأكبر, ثم يبدأ التفكير بـ “أوبراين”, وهو أحد أعضاء الحزب الداخلي الذي شعر ونستون أن ولاءه للحزب ليس تاماً, فقد شك ونستون أن أوبراين ينتمي لأخوية شديدة السرية والغموض تعمل ضد الحزب, ثم يفكر بعد ذلك في “غولدشتاين” عدو الحزب الأول, والذي كان أحد أهم أعضائة ولكنه تأمر عليه وحكم عليه بالموت ولكنه استطاع الهرب وأصبح يشكل قلقاً كبيراً للحزب.

انتهى ونستون؛ هذه الأفكار المجردة تعني مؤت زؤام مؤكد, لذا لم يعد لديه شيء يخسره, فالمرء في كل الحالات لن يُقتل إلا مرة واحدة ..

ومن هنا تبدأ الرواية؛ ويبدأ استعراض القمع والتسلط والطغيان والدكتاتورية والاستبداد, ويبدأ استعراض الريبة والقلق والاضطراب والجزع, الحزب في كل مكان, الحزب في كل فرد, أو كما يقول ونستون: لم يعد هناك مكان آمن سوى سنتيمترات معدودة في الجمجمة.

رواية “1984″ كان لها تأثير كبير على روايات عديدة؛ فقد أثرت في رواية “فهرنهايت 451″ لـ “راي برادبوري”, و”الرجل الراكض” لـ “ستيفن كنج”, و “البرتقالة الميكانيكية” لـ “أرثر بيرجس”, ومن جهة أخرى كان لرواية “نحن” للأديب الروسي” يفنجي زامياتين” ورواية “عالم جديد شجاع” لـ “ألدوس هكسلي” تأثيراً كبيراً على جورج أورويل أثناء كتابته لهذه الرواية.

أيضاً كان لهذه الرواية تأثير كبير على اللغة الإنجليزية؛ فقد شاع استخدام العديد من المفردات التي ابتكرت في هذه الرواية مثل: (الأخ الأكبر - Big Brother), (الغرفة 101 - Room 101), (شرطة الفكر - Thought police), ( التفكير المزدوج- Doublethink), ( اللغة الجديدة – Newspeak), بل لقد درج استخدم مصطلح (أورويلي – Orwellian) كطريقة لوصف الحالات, أو المشاهد, أو الأفكار, أو طرق التحدث التي تشبه ما جاء في أعمال أورويل عموماً وهذه الرواية خصوصاً.

العنوان الأصلي لهذه الرواية كان “أخر رجل في أوروبا” ولكن الناشر اقترح على أورويل تغييره, وبالرغم من المحاولات العديدة لتفسير سبب اختيار أورويل لعام “1984″ بالضبط كي يكون عنواناً للرواية, إلا أنها كلها غير مؤكدة, والاقتناع السائد الذي يُذكر غالباً بهذا الخصوص أن عنوان الرواية هو عكس لأخر رقمين من سنة 1948, وهي السنة التي أتم فيها أورويل كتابة الرواية والتي استغرقت كتابتها ثلاث سنوات بداية من 1945, ونشرت في عام 1949.

ترجمت هذه الرواية لـ 62 لغة, وبمناسبة الحديث عن الترجمات فإني أقدم جزيل الشكر للأستاذ “أنور الشامي” لترجمته الرائعة لهذه الرواية.

جدير بالذكر أن مجلة “التايم” اختارت هذه الرواية كواحدة من أفضل 100 رواية كتبت بالإنجليزية من عام 1923 وحتى عام 2005, هذا بالرغم من أنها منعت في الكثير من الدول والكثير من المكتبات حين صدورها باعتبارها رواية خطره سياسياً.

مما لاشك فيه أن جورج أورويل استوحى الكثير من سمات “الأخ الأكبر” من القائد الثاني للاتحاد السوفيتي “جوزيف ستالين”, واستوحي الكثير من سمات مجتمع “أوشيانيا” من مجتمع “الاتحاد السوفيتي” حينذاك, حتى شخصية المنشق “إيمانويل غولدشتاين” مستوحاة من المثقف الثوري الماركسي “ليون تروتسكي” الذي طرد من الحزب الشيوعي وأبعد عن الاتحاد السوفيتي.

اسم “جورج أورويل” الحقيقي هو “أريك أرثر بلير”, ولد في عام 1903 في الهند لأن والده كان يعمل هناك, بقي أورويل هناك حتى عاد – “ذهب” إذا تحرينا الدقة - مع أمه في سن الثامنة عشرة لبريطانيا, وبالرغم من أنه أتم تعليمه العام, وكان أداءه في الامتحانات جيداً, إلا انه لم يرغب بمواصلة تعليمه الجامعي, وفضل أن يذهب للعمل في الشرطة الاستعمارية في الهند, وهو العمل الذي تركه بعد خمس سنوات وعاد لأوروبا, كان مقته للاستعمار البريطاني الذي يعمل له وعشقه للكتابة هما سببا تركه لهذا العمل, وقد قرر عندما عاد لأوروبا أن يعيش حياة الفقراء, وقضى عاماً كاملاً يعيش معهم ويراقبهم, ليكتب بعد ذلك تقريره (متشرداً في لندن وباريس), ومن هنا نفهم سبب تغييره لأسمه؛ فهو يريد التخلص من شخصية الرجل الاستعماري الذي كانه ليصبح جورج أورويل اللاطبقي (أورويل: اسم نهر في الهند قرب المنطقة التي ولد فيها), وفي عام 1936 توجه أورويل لأسبانيا التي كانت تشهد حرباً أهليه كي يعمل كمراسل صحفي فيها, لكنه التحق بالمليشيات المحاربة للفاشية وأصبح يقاتل من أجل الاشتراكية, وتعرض أثناء ذلك لجرح خطير في عنقه, وقد دون خبراته هذه في كتاب (الحنين إلى كاتالونيا), وأثناء الحرب العالمية الثانية عمل كمراسل لمحطة (بي بي سي), وأثناء الحرب أيضاً كتب روايته الرائعة الشهيرة (مزرعة الحيوانات), وفي أخر سنيه كتب روايته “1984″ وتوفي بعد نشرها بأقل من عام في 1950.

تم تحويل الرواية لفيلم سينمائي, وقد كان توقيت عرض الفيلم مثير جداً؛ فقد صدر الفيلم في عام 1984, وفي ذلك العام أيضاً أصدرت شركة “Apple” جهازها “ماكنتوش” وروّجت له بإعلان شهير جداً مستوحى من رواية 1984, تظهر فيه شركة IBM”” كأنها “الأخ الأكبر” وهو يتحدث للشعب من على إحدى الشاشات الكبيرة, وتظهر شركة “Apple” كأنها فتاة تجري حاملة مطرقة, والجنود يطاردونها, ثم تحطم الفتاة الشاشة, بعد ذلك يظهر شعار الإعلان, وقد كان: شركة أبل سوف تقدم لكم ماكنتوش وسوف تعرفون لماذا 1984 لن يشبه “1984″.

characteristics of romantic poetry

To The Cuckoo

The Poem:

O blithe newcomer! I have heard,
I hear thee and rejoice:
O Cuckoo! shall I call thee bird,
Or but a wandering Voice?

While I am lying on the grass
I hear thy restless shout;
From hill to hill it seems to pass,
About. and all about!

To me, no Babbler with a tale
Of sunshine and of flowers,
Thou tellest, Cuckoo! in the vale
Of visionary hours.

Thrice welcome, darling of the Spring!
Even yet thou art to me
No bird, but an invisible thing,
A voice, a mystery;

The same whom in my schoolboy days
I listened to; that Cry
Which made me look a thousand ways
In bush, and tree, and sky.

To seek thee did I often rove
Through woods and on the green;
And thou wert still a hope, a love;
Still longed for, never seen!

And I can listen to thee yet;
Can lie upon the plain
And listen, till I do beget
That golden time again.

O blessed bird! the earth we pace
Again appears to be
An unsubstantial, faery place,
That is fit home for Thee!

Summary:

The Poem “To the Cuckoo”, written by William Wordsworth is a poem that is addressed to a Cuckoo bird. Wordsworth is lying on the grass, immersing himself in nature when he hears the sound of a Cuckoo bird crying. The Cuckoo birds cry strikes emotions in him that he has not visited since his childhood. He takes the birds cry to have a story behind it and true significance rather than disregarding the cry as most others would in this case. The cry makes Wordsworth recollect his childhood days when he first heard the bird. Its "wandering voice" leads him through the woods and valleys trying to find its origin, but he never finds the bird. The poem then brings us back to present day where Wordsworth can appreciate how the bird affects his memory. The poem ends with Wordsworth commenting that the bird is blessed and deserves to be in a mythical earth, where it resides.

Summary 2:

This poem has been written in admiration and glorification of the cuckoo. The cuckoo becomes a symbol of beauty, innocence and childhood for the poet. The poet hears the cuckoo singing in a garden. Her song reminds him of the golden days of his childhood. The poet calls the cuckoo a happy stranger. He bears and enjoys her song; bit is unable to see her. The cuckoo is more like a wandering voice than a bird to him.

The cuckoo's double-cry seems to travel rapidly from hill to hill. Sometimes, it seems very near and some times very far away. The poet calls on the cuckoo but this is vain as he cannot trace her out. The poem presents a beautiful contrast between the poet and the cuckoo. The poet lives in the past. The cuckoo lives in the present.

Analysis

Stanza 1
O blithe newcomer! I have heard,
-Wordsworth is addressing the bird all throughout the poem, it is dedicated to the Cuckoo bird.
-Blithe: Casual or carefree. Saying “Oh blithe newcomer”, Wordsworth is giving the bird the label of being merry and not being subject to the restriction of industrial life.
-“I have heard” means he knows the bird (birds cry)
I hear thee and rejoice:
-He is happy when he hears this bird
O Cuckoo! shall I call thee bird,
Or but a wandering Voice?
-He wonders if he should label it as just a bird, or is it a creature bigger than the realms of his comprehension?
-“Wandering voice” gives the bird the “ability” to be free and again not subject to regular human lifestyle restriction

Stanza 2
While I am lying on the grass
I hear thy restless shout;
-The poem then states it is present time when Wordsworth hears the birds constant cry (check above for a striped cuckoos call)
From hill to hill it seems to pass,
About, and all about!
-It seems to Wordsworth that the birds cry is echoing all around the hills he is in, the cuckoo’s call is passing around the area, submerging him into its song.

Stanza 3
To me, no Babbler with a tale
Of sunshine and of flowers,
-These two lines indicate that this bird’s cry has so much more attached to it than one would perceive. “no Babbler” indicates the bird is not meaningless and does not just “babble”.
-“with a tale of sunshine and of flowers” again portrays that the bird is not a meaningless creature with a story about flowers and sunshine, as most cuckoo’s songs would be.
Thou tellest, Cuckoo! in the vale
Of visionary hours.
-This cuckoo tells a story of “visionary hours” or times from the past. The cuckoo’s song has an attachment to Wordsworth’s past.

Stanza 4
Thrice welcome, darling of the Spring!
-Wordsworth is happy to welcome the bird and its story. The “thrice” is an emphasis on his eagerness to receive the birds call.
Even yet thou art to me
No bird, but an invisible thing,
A voice, a mystery;
-These lines say that Wordsworth has actually never seen the bird and that it is a mysterious voice. The bird has been hidden to him over the years, yet it can still strike emotions in him.

Stanza 5
The same whom in my schoolboy days
-The cry is the same he heard as a child. The poem now enters into the past
I listened to; that Cry
Which made me look a thousand ways
In bush, and tree, and sky.
-As a child he heard the birds cry. Yet again the birds cry was able to submerge him in its echo, he becomes captured in its melody and fascinated in finding the bird.

Stanza 6
To seek thee did I often rove
-The bird inspired him to seek it out. He did “often” rove looking for it, signifying that he had a deep attachment to this bird’s cry and that it was more than just a beautiful sound.
Through woods and on the green;
-Searching far and wide. Dedicated to finding it.
And thou wert still a hope, a love;
-He truly wants to find this bird. He still hopes to.
Still longed for, never seen!
-“a love, Still longed for, never seen!” Wordsworth reveals his love for this bird. He now tells us that he did indeed love the bird and was for this reason he searched for it. He never found the the bird but still yearns to.

Stanza 7
And I can listen to thee yet;
-Poem enters present time again.
Can lie upon the plain
And listen, till I do beget
- Beget: Produce
That golden time again.
-The whole stanza only makes sense when analyzed together. He explains that now, he can hear the cuckoo birds cry while laying out in a field, and is able to produce the memories of what he considers his “golden time”. As a true romantic his years as a child are considered to be the best of his life (golden), and this Cuckoo bird is able to draw that emotion from him.

Stanza 8
O blessed bird! the earth we pace
-“O blessed bird!” indicates again how the entire poem is addressed to the Cuckoo but also his love. He loves the bird and indicates that it bestow’s joy and happiness to him.
Again appears to be
-“Again”: he has visited this notion before
An unsubstantial, faery place,
-This is the line that we have found most difficult to annotate and translate into modern English. “unsubstantial” can take on the meanings of “immaterial”, “flimsy” or “not true”, and our best guess is that the word “faery” can take on the meaning of a closely spelt word, “fairy”. We deduct that seeing as modern scholars have published versions of the poem with the word “fairy” in the place of “faery”. Therefore we feel that Wordsworth is trying to say that the earth that both of them share is not strong or concrete (in the figurative sense) and that it is actually a mystical place because it can hold such immense natural beauty at the same time as holding such distained industrial evil.
That is fit home for Thee
-Wordsworth ends the poem by indicating that a home of such great versatility, being able to house two such opposing phenomenon, is a suitable home for such a beautiful and beloved creature.

Themes

There are several themes evident throughout "To The Cuckoo" Some of these are also seen in Wordsworth's other poems.

Nature

Wordworths' opinion on nature is a central theme in "To the Cuckoo" as he sits taking in his surroundings listening to the song of the bird. Nature is a primary idea in many of Wordsworths' works and illustrates his belief in romanticism and the deeper importance of being immersed in nature in response to the industrial revolution and the growing cities around him.

Childhood and Memories

As Wordsworth sits listening to and looking for the Cuckoo he cannot see, he finds himself revisiting his childhood memories and school boy days as he often heard the song of the Cuckoo yet he could never find it.The characterisation of the bird allows Wordsworth to merge his past recollections with the present.This theme illustrates the greater significance of the poem; this poem is wordsworths’s way of expressing how the memory is a key factor in preserving the delights and pleasures of being in touch with a divine being through nature.

The Cuckoo birds cry is not only significant because he believes the cuckoo itself is an extraordinary creature and represents a higher being, but because the Cuckoo’s cry is a trigger for him. Wordsworth is able to access memories from decades before hand of “the golden time” in his childhood via the message the cuckoo brings. Wordsworth is not only trying to convey the idea that the cuckoo bird is an outstanding creature and that its cry signifies a memory trigger, but he wants the reader to understand that true romantic notions in a childhood truly leave those that believe in preserving the innocence of childhood, and that no matter how many years pass, the true romanticism will always live on in believers. Although children are best in touch with the Divine and do not have to be subject to the industrial age, adults such as Wordsworth that keep believing, will help preserve the romantic way.

An important part of both the idea of nature and wordsworth's childhood is that he has never come across the Cuckoo he has solely heard its voice no matter how he has tried in search of it.

 

Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard
By Thomas Gray) (1716-1771)

Type of Work

......."Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" is—as the title indicates—an elegy. Such a poem centers on the death of a person or persons and is, therefore, somber in tone. An elegy is lyrical rather than narrative—that is, its primary purpose is to express feelings and insights about its subject rather than to tell a story. Typically, an elegy expresses feelings of loss and sorrow while also praising the deceased and commenting on the meaning of the deceased's time on earth. Gray's poem reflects on the lives of humble and unheralded people buried in the cemetery of a church.

Setting

.......The time is the mid 1700s, about a decade before the Industrial Revolution began in England. The place is the cemetery of a church. Evidence indicates that the church is St. Giles, in the small town of Stoke Poges, Buckinghamshire, in southern England. Gray himself is buried in that cemetery. William Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania, once maintained a manor house at Stoge Poges.  

Years of Composition and Publication

.......Gray began writing the elegy in 1742, put it aside for a while, and finished it in 1750. Robert Dodsley published the poem in London in 1751. Revised or altered versions of the poem appeared in 1753, 1758, 1768, and 1775. Copies of the various versions are on file in the at Oxford University.

Meter and Rhyme Scheme

.......Gray wrote the poem in four-line stanzas (quatrains). Each line is in iambic pentameter, meaning the following: 

1..Each line has five pairs of syllables for a total of ten syllables. 
2..In each pair, the first syllable is unstressed (or unaccented), and the second is stressed (or accented), as in the two lines that open the poem:

.......The CUR few TOLLS the KNELL of PART ing DAY
.......The LOW ing HERD wind SLOW ly O'ER the LEA 

.......In each stanza, the first line rhymes with the third and the second line rhymes with the fourth (abab), as follows:

a.....The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 
b.....The lowing herd wind slowly o'er the lea,
a.....The plowman homeward plods his weary way, 
b.....And leaves the world to darkness and to me.

Stanza Form: Heroic Quatrain

.......A stanza with the above-mentioned characteristics—four lines, iambic pentameter, and an abab rhyme scheme—is often referred to as a heroic quatrain. (Quatrain is derived from the Latin word quattuor, meaning four.) William Shakespeare and John Dryden had earlier used this stanza form. After Gray's poem became famous, writers and critics also began referring to the heroic quatrain as an elegiac stanza.

.

Stanza 1

1. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 
2. The lowing herd wind slowly o'er the lea,
3. The plowman homeward plods his weary way, 
4. And leaves the world to darkness and to me.

Notes

(1) Curfew: ringing bell in the evening that reminded people in English towns of Gray’s time to put out fires and go to bed. (2) Knell: mournful sound. (3) Parting day: day's end; dying day; twilight; dusk. (4) Lowing: mooing. (5) O'er: contraction for over. (6) Lea: meadow.

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Stanza 2

5. Now fades the glimm'ring landscape on the sight, 
6. And all the air a solemn stillness holds,
7. Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight, 
8. And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds.

Notes

(1) Line 5: The landscape becomes less and less visible. (2) Sight . . . solemn stillness . . . save: alliteration. (3) Save: except. (4) Beetle: winged insect that occurs in more than 350,000 varieties. One type is the firefly, or lightning bug. (5) Wheels: verb meaning flies in circles. (6) Droning: humming; buzzing; monotonous sound. (7) Drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds: This clause apparently refers to the gentle sounds made by a bell around the neck of a castrated male sheep that leads other sheep. A castrated male sheep is called a wether. Such a sheep with a bell around its neck is called a bellwether. Folds is a noun referring to flocks of sheep. (8) Tinklings: onomatopoeia.

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Stanza 3

9. Save that from yonder ivy-mantled tow'r
10. The moping owl does to the moon complain
11. Of such, as wand'ring near her secret bow'r,
12. Molest her ancient solitary reign.

Notes

(1) Save: except. (2) Yonder: distant; remote. (3) Ivy-mantled: cloaked, dressed, or adorned with ivy. (4) Moping: gloomy; grumbling. (5) Of such: of anything or anybody. (6) Bow'r: bower, an enclosure surrounded by plant growth—in this case, ivy. (7) Molest her ancient solitary reign: bother the owl while it keeps watch over the churchyard and countryside. (8) Her ancient solitary rein: metaphor comparing the owl to a queen.

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Stanza 4

13. Beneath those rugged elms, that yew-tree's shade,
14. Where heaves the turf in many a mould'ring heap,
15. Each in his narrow cell for ever laid,
16. The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep.

Notes

(1) Where heaves the turf: anastrophe, a figure of speech that inverts the normal word order (the turf heaves). (2) Mould'ring: mouldering (British), moldering (American), an adjective meaning decaying, crumbling. (3) Cell: metaphor comparing a grave to a prison cell. (4) Rude: robust; sturdy; hearty; stalwart. (4) Hamlet: village.

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Stanza 5

17. The breezy call of incense-breathing Morn,
18. The swallow twitt'ring  from the straw-built shed,
19. The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn,
20. No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed.

Notes

(1) Breezy call of incense-breathing Morn: wind carrying the pleasant smells of morning, including dewy grass and flowers. Notice that Morn is a metaphor comparing it to a living creature. (It calls and breathes.) (2) Swallow: Insect-eating songbird that likes to perch. (3) Clarion: cock-a-doodle-doo. (4) Echoing horn: The words may refer to the sound made by a fox huntsman who blows a copper horn to which pack hounds respond.

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Stanza 6

21. For them no more the blazing hearth shall burn,
22. Or busy housewife ply her evening care:
23. No children run to lisp their sire's return,
24. Or climb his knees the envied kiss to share.

Notes

(1) hearth . . . housewife . . . her: alliteration. (2) Climb his knees the envied kiss to share: anastrophe, a figure of speech that inverts the normal word order (to share the envied kiss).

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Stanza 7

25. Oft did the harvest to their sickle yield,
26. Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke;
27. How jocund did they drive their team afield!
28. How bow'd the woods beneath their sturdy stroke!

Notes

(1) Sickle: Harvesting tool with a handle and a crescent-shaped blade. Field hands swing it from right to left to cut down plant growth. (2) Furrow: channel or groove made by a plow for planting seeds. (3) Glebe: earth. (4) Jocund: To maintain the meter, Gray uses an adjective when the syntax call for an adverb, jocundly. Jocund (pronounced JAHK und) means cheerful. 

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Stanza 8

29. Let not Ambition mock their useful toil,
30. Their homely joys, and destiny obscure;
31. Nor Grandeur hear with a disdainful smile
32. The short and simple annals of the poor.

Notes

(1) Ambition: Personification referring to the desire to succeed or to ambitious people seeking lofty goals. (2) Destiny obscure: the humble fate of the common people; their unheralded deeds. (3) Lines 29-30: anastrophe, a figure of speech that inverts the normal word order (let not Ambition obscure their destiny and homely joys).
(4) Grandeur: personification referring to people with wealth, social standing, and power. (5) Annals: historical records; story.

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Stanza 9

33. The boast of heraldry, the pomp of pow'r,
34. And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave,
35. Awaits alike th' inevitable hour.
36. The paths of glory lead but to the grave.

Notes

(1) Boast of heraldry: Proud talk about the aristocratic or noble roots of one's family; snobbery. Heraldry was a science that traced family lines of royal and noble personages and designed coats of arms for them. (2) Pomp: ceremonies, rituals, and splendid surroundings of nobles and royals. (3) Pomp of pow'r: alliteration. (4) E'er: ever. General meaning of stanza: Every person—no matter how important, powerful, or wealthy—ends up the same, dead. 

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Stanza 10

37. Nor you, ye proud, impute to these the fault,
38. If Mem'ry o'er their tomb no trophies raise,
39. Where thro' the long-drawn aisle and fretted vault
40. The pealing anthem swells the note of praise.

Notes

(1) Impute: Assign, ascribe. (2) Mem'ry: Memory, a personification referring to memorials, commemorations, and tributes—including statues, headstones, and epitaphs—used to preserve the memory of important or privileged people. (3) Where thro' . . . the note of praise: Reference to the interior of a church housing the tombs of important people. Fretted vault refers to a carved or ornamented arched roof or ceiling. (4) Pealing anthem may refer to lofty organ music. 

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Stanza 11

41. Can storied urn or animated bust 
42. Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath?
43. Can Honour's voice provoke the silent dust,
44. Or Flatt'ry soothe the dull cold ear of Death?

Notes

(1) Storied urn: Vase adorned with pictures telling a story. Urns have sometimes been used to hold the ashes of a cremated body. (2) Bust: sculpture of the head, shoulders, and chest of a human. (3) Storied urn . . . breath? Can the soul (fleeting breath) be called back to the body (mansion) by the urn or bust back? Notice that urn and bust are personifications that call. (4) Can Honour's . . . Death? Can honor (Honour's voice) attributed to the dead person cause that person (silent dust) to come back to life? Can flattering words (Flatt'ry) about the dead person make death more "bearable"? (5) General meaning of stanza: Lines 41-45 continue the idea begun in Lines 37-40. In other words, can any memorials—such as the trophies mentioned in Line 38, the urn and bust mentioned in Line 41, and personifications (honor and flattery) mentioned in Lines 43 and 44—bring a person back to life or make death less final or fearsome?

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Stanza 12

45. Perhaps in this neglected spot is laid
46. Some heart once pregnant with celestial fire;
47. Hands, that the rod of empire might have sway'd,
48. Or wak'd to ecstasy the living lyre.

Notes

(1) Pregnant with celestial fire: Full of great ideas, abilities, or goals (celestial fire). (2) Rod of empire: scepter held by a king or an emperor during ceremonies. One of the humble country folk in the cemetery might have become a king or an emperor if he had been given the opportunity. (3) Wak'd . . .lyre: Played beautiful music on a lyre, a stringed instrument. In other words, one of the people in the cemetery could have become a great musician if given the opportunity, "waking up" the notes of the lyre. 

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Stanza 13

49. But Knowledge to their eyes her ample page
50. Rich with the spoils of time did ne'er unroll;
51. Chill Penury repress'd their noble rage,
52. And froze the genial current of the soul.

Notes

(1) Knowledge . . . unroll: Knowledge did not reveal itself to them (their eyes) in books (ample page) rich with treasures of information (spoils of time). (2) Knowledge . . . unroll: Personification and anastrophe a figure of speech that inverts the normal word order (knowledge did ne'er enroll). (3) Chill . . . soul: Poverty (penury) repressed their enthusiasm (rage) and froze the flow (current) of ideas (soul). 

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Stanza 14

53. Full many a gem of purest ray serene,
54. The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear:
55. Full many a flow'r is born to blush unseen,
56. And waste its sweetness on the desert air.

Note

Full . . . air: These may be the most famous lines in the poem. Gray is comparing the humble village people to undiscovered gems in caves at the bottom of the ocean and to undiscovered flowers in the desert. 

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Stanza 15

57. Some village-Hampden, that with dauntless breast
58. The little tyrant of his fields withstood;
59. Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest,
60. Some Cromwell, guiltless of his country's blood.

Notes

(1) John Hampden (1594-1643). Hampden, a Puritan member of Parliament, frequently criticized and opposed the policies of King Charles I. In particular, he opposed a tax imposed by the king to outfit the British navy. Because he believed that only Parliament could impose taxes, he refused to pay 20 shillings in ship money in 1635. Many joined him in his opposition. War broke out between those who supported Parliament and those who supported the king. Hampden was killed in battle in 1643. Gray here is presenting Hampden as a courageous (dauntless) hero who stood against the king (little tyrant). (2) Milton: John Milton (1608-1674), the great English poet and scholar.

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Stanza 16

61. Th' applause of list'ning senates to command,
62. The threats of pain and ruin to despise,
63. To scatter plenty o'er a smiling land,
64. And read their hist'ry in a nation's eyes,

Notes

The subject and verb of Lines 61-64 are in the first three words of  Line 65, their lot forbade. Thus, this stanza says the villagers' way of life (lot) prohibited or prevented them from receiving applause from politicians for good deeds such as alleviating pain and suffering and providing plenty (perhaps food) across the land. These deeds would have been recorded by the appreciating nation.

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Stanza 17

65. Their lot forbade: nor circumscrib'd alone
66. Their growing virtues, but their crimes confin'd;
67. Forbade to wade through slaughter to a throne,
68. And shut the gates of mercy on mankind,

Note

General meaning: Their lot in life not only prevented (circumbscrib'd) them from doing good deeds (like those mentioned in Stanza 16) but also prevented (confin'd) bad deeds such as killing enemies to gain the throne and refusing to show mercy to people. 

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Stanza 18

69. The struggling pangs of conscious truth to hide,
70. To quench the blushes of ingenuous shame,
71. Or heap the shrine of Luxury and Pride
72. With incense kindled at the Muse's flame. 

Notes

(1) General meaning: This stanza continues the idea begun in the previous stanza, saying that the villagers' lot in life also prevented them from hiding truth and shame and from bragging or using pretty or flattering words (incense kindled at the Muse's flame) to gain luxuries and feed their pride. (2) Muse's flame: an allusion to sister goddesses in Greek and Roman mythology who inspired writers, musicians, historians, dancers, and astronomers. These goddesses were called Muses.

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Stanza 19

73. Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife, 
74. Their sober wishes never learn'd to stray;
75. Along the cool sequester'd vale of life
76. They kept the noiseless tenor of their way.

Note

(1) General meaning: The villagers plodded on faithfully, never straying from their lot in life as common people. (2) Madding: maddening; furious; frenzied. (3) Noiseless tenor of their way: quiet way of life.

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Stanza 20

77. Yet ev'n these bones from insult to protect,
78. Some frail memorial still erected nigh,
79. With uncouth rhymes and shapeless sculpture deck'd,
80. Implores the passing tribute of a sigh. 

Note

General meaning: But even these people have gravestones (frail memorial), although they are engraved with simple and uneducated words or decked with humble sculpture. These gravestones elicit a sigh from people who see them.

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Stanza 21

81. Their name, their years, spelt by th' unletter'd muse, 
82. The place of fame and elegy supply:
83. And many a holy text around she strews,
84. That teach the rustic moralist to die.

Notes

(1)Their . . . supply: Their name and age appear but there are no lofty tributes. (2) Unletter'd muse: Uneducated writer or engraver. (2) Holy text: probably Bible quotations. (3) She: muse. See the second note for Stanza 18. (4) Rustic moralist: pious villager.

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Stanza 22

85. For who to dumb Forgetfulness a prey,
86. This pleasing anxious being e'er resign'd,
87. Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day,
88. Nor cast one longing, ling'ring look behind?

Note

General meaning: These humble people, though they were doomed to be forgotten (to dumb Forgetfulness a prey), did not die (did not leave the warm precincts of cheerful day) without looking back with regret and perhaps a desire to linger a little longer .

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Stanza 23

89. On some fond breast the parting soul relies, 
90. Some pious drops the closing eye requires;
91. Ev'n from the tomb the voice of Nature cries,
92. Ev'n in our ashes live their wonted fires.

Note

General meaning: The dying person (parting soul) relies on a friend (fond breast) to supply the engraved words (pious drops) on a tombstone. Even from the tomb the spirit of a person cries out for remembrance. 

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Stanza 24

93. For thee, who mindful of th' unhonour'd Dead
94. Dost in these lines their artless tale relate; 
95. If chance, by lonely contemplation led,
96. Some kindred spirit shall inquire thy fate],

Notes

(1) For thee . . . relate: Gray appears to be referring to himself. Mindful that the villagers deserve some sort of memorial, he is telling their story (their artless tale) in this elegy (these lines). (2) Lines 95-96: But what about Gray himself? What if someone asks about his fate? Gray provides the answer in the next stanza.

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Stanza 25

97. Haply some hoary-headed swain may say,
98. "Oft have we seen him at the peep of dawn
99. Brushing with hasty steps the dews away
100. To meet the sun upon the upland lawn.

Notes

(1) Haply: Perhaps; by chance; by accident. (2) Hoary-headed swain: Gray-haired country fellow; old man who lives in the region. 

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Stanza 26

101. "There at the foot of yonder nodding beech
102. That wreathes its old fantastic roots so high,
103. His listless length at noontide would he stretch,
104. And pore upon the brook that babbles by.

Notes

(1) Nodding: bending; bowing. (2) Listless length: his tired body. (3) Pore upon: Look at; watch.

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Stanza 27

105. "Hard by yon wood, now smiling as in scorn,
106. Mutt'ring his wayward fancies he would rove,
107. Now drooping, woeful wan, like one forlorn,
108. Or craz'd with care, or cross'd in hopeless love.

Notes

(1) Wood, now smiling as in scorn: personification comparing the forest to a person. (2) Wayward fancies: unpredictable, unexpected, or unwanted thoughts; capricious or flighty thoughts. (3) Rove: wander. (4) Craz'd . . . cross'd: alliteration.

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Stanza 28

109. "One morn I miss'd him on the custom'd hill,
110. Along the heath and near his fav'rite tree;
111. Another came; nor yet beside the rill,
112. Nor up the lawn, nor at the wood was he;

Notes

(1) Another came: another morning came. (2) Nor yet: But he still was not. (3) Rill: small stream or brook.

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Stanza 29

113. "The next with dirges due in sad array
114. Slow thro' the church-way path we saw him borne.
115. Approach and read (for thou canst read) the lay,
116. Grav'd on the stone beneath yon aged thorn."

Notes

(1) The next: the next morning. (2) Dirges: funeral songs. (3) Lay: short poem—in this case, the epitaph below.

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THE EPITAPH

117.  Here rests his head upon the lap of Earth
118. A youth to Fortune and to Fame unknown.
119.  Fair Science frown'd not on his humble birth, 
120.  And Melancholy mark'd him for her own. 
121.  Large was his bounty, and his soul sincere, 
122.  Heav'n did a recompense as largely send: 
123.  He gave to Mis'ry all he had, a tear, 
124.  He gain'd from Heav'n ('twas all he wish'd) a friend. 

125.  No farther seek his merits to disclose, 
126.  Or draw his frailties from their dread abode, 
127. (There they alike in trembling hope repose) 
128.  The bosom of his Father and his God. 

Note

General meaning: Here lies a man of humble birth who did not know fortune or fame but who did become a scholar. Although he was depressed at times, he had a good life, was sensitive to the needs of others, and followed God's laws. Don't try to find out more about his good points or bad points, which are now with him in heaven. 
..

Themes

Death: the Great Equalizer

.......Even the proud and the mighty must one day lie beneath the earth, like the humble men and women now buried in the churchyard, as line 36 notes: The paths of glory lead but to the grave. Lines 41-44 further point out that no grandiose memorials and no flattering words about the deceased can bring him or her back from death.

Can storied urn or animated bust 
Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath?
Can Honour's voice provoke the silent dust,
Or Flatt'ry soothe the dull cold ear of Death?

Missed Opportunities

.......Because of poverty or other handicaps, many talented people never receive the opportunities they deserve. The following lines elucidate this theme through metaphors: 

Full many a gem of purest ray serene,
The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear:
Full many a flow'r is born to blush unseen,
And waste its sweetness on the desert air. 

Here, the gem at the bottom of the ocean may represent an undiscovered musician, poet, scientist or philosopher. The flower may likewise stand for a person of great and noble qualities that are "wasted on the desert air." Of course, on another level, the gem and the flower can stand for anything in life that goes unappreciated.

Virtue

.......In their rural setting, far from the temptations of the cities and the courts of kings, the villagers led virtuous lives, as lines 73-76 point out:

Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife, 
Their sober wishes never learn'd to stray;
Along the cool sequester'd vale of life
They kept the noiseless tenor of their way.

Inversion

.......For poetic effect, Gray frequently uses inversion (reversal of the normal word order). Following are examples:

Line 6: And all the air a solemn stillness holds (all the air holds a solemn stillness)
Line 14: Where heaves the turf in many a mould'ring heap (Where the turf heaves)
Line 24: Or climb his knees the envied kiss to share. (Or climb his knees to share the envied kiss)
Line 79: With uncouth rhymes and shapeless sculpture deck'd (deck'd with uncouth rhymes and shapeless sculpture)

Syncope
Omitting letters or sounds within a word. 

Gray also frequently uses a commonplace poetic device known as syncope, the omission of letters or sounds within a word. 

The lowing herd wind slowly o'er the lea (line 2)
Now fades the glimm'ring landscape on the sight (line 5)
Save that from yonder ivy-mantled tow'r (line 9)
The swallow twitt'ring  from the straw-built shed (line 18)

Figures of Speech

.......Following are examples of figures of speech in the poem. 

Alliteration
Repetition of a Consonant Sound

The plowman homeward plods his weary way (line 3)
.
The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn (line 19)
.
Nor cast one longing, ling'ring look behind? (line 88)
.
Now drooping, woeful wan, like one forlorn (line 107)
.
Or craz'd with care, or cross'd in hopeless love. (line 108)

Anaphora
Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of word groups occurring one after the other

And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave (line 34)

Their name, their years, spelt by th' unletter'd muse (line 81) 

Ev'n from the tomb the voice of Nature cries,
Ev'n in our ashes live their wonted fires. (lines 91-92)

Metaphor
Comparison between unlike things without using like, as, or than

Full many a gem of purest ray serene,
The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear:
Full many a flow'r is born to blush unseen,
And waste its sweetness on the desert air. (lines 53-56)
Comparison of the dead village people to gems and flowers

Or heap the shrine of Luxury and Pride
With incense kindled at the Muse's flame. (lines 71-72)
Comparison of flattering words to incense

Metonymy
Use of a word or phrase to suggest a related word or phrase

To scatter plenty o'er a smiling land
Land stands for people.

Personification
A form of metaphor that compares a thing to a person

Let not Ambition mock their useful toil 
Their homely joys, and destiny obscure;
Nor Grandeur hear with a disdainful smile
The short and simple annals of the poor. (lines 29-32)
Ambition and Grandeur take on human characteristics.

But Knowledge to their eyes her ample page
Rich with the spoils of time did ne'er unroll (line 49-50)
Notice that Knowledge becomes a person, a female.

Fair Science frown'd not on his humble birth, 
And Melancholy mark'd him for her own. (lines 119-120)
Science and Melancholy become persons.

Assessment of the Poem

.......Scholars regard "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" as one of the greatest poems in the English language. It weaves structure, rhyme scheme, imagery and message into a brilliant tapestry that confers on Gray everlasting fame. The quality of its poetry and insights reach Shakespearean and Miltonian heights. 

Biographical Information

.......Thomas Gray was born in London on December 26, 1716. He was the only one of twelve children who survived into adulthood. His father, Philip, a scrivener (a person who copies text) was a cruel, violent man, but his mother, Dorothy, believed in her son and operated a millinery business to educate him at Eton school in his childhood and Peterhouse College, Cambridge, as a young man. 
.......He left the college in 1738 without a degree to tour Europe with his friend, Horace Walpole, the son of the first prime minister of England, Robert Walpole (1676-1745). However, Gray did earn a degree in law although he never practiced in that profession. After achieving recognition as a poet, he refused to give public lectures because he was extremely shy. Nevertheless, he gained such widespread acclaim and respect that England offered him the post of poet laureate, which would make him official poet of the realm. However, he rejected the honor. Gray was that rare kind of person who cared little for fame and adulation.

Study Questions and Essay Topics

• Gray was the only one of twelve children who survived childhood. Do you believe the memory of his dead brothers and sisters influenced him in the writing of his poem? 
• What was Gray's opinion of high-born persons vis-a-vis the low-born? 
• Write an essay that develops the idea expressed in line 36: The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 
• Read "Ozymandias," a poem by another English writer, Percy Bysshe Shelley. Then write an essay that compares and contrasts Shelley's idea of posthumous glory with Gray's.
• In an essay, discuss Gray's use of animal and insect imagery in "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard."
• Which of the following adjectives best describes the mood of the elegy: peaceful, gloomy, solemn, desolate, morbid?